Editorial

Rajlaxmi Chouhan

Dear Readers,

It is with great pleasure that we present the latest edition of Techscape, underscoring some landmark events and innovative scientific inquiries at our Institute. As our nation celebrates the 75th Republic Day, a testament to our democratic spirit, this issue sets the stage for contemplation on the intersection of technology and polity. Against this backdrop, the upcoming Industry Day at the Institute becomes not only a platform for innovation and industry collaboration but a reflection of the dynamic synergy between technological progress and the ever-evolving facets of our democratic governance.

The dedication of IIT Jodhpur's permanent campus to the nation by the Hon’ble Prime Minister signifies not only a pivotal historical moment but a profound commitment to education, research, and national progress. The 9th Institute Convocation witnessed the award of a whopping 800 degrees honoring academic accomplishments and marking the beginning of our graduates' professional journey. As a part of Scientific Social Connect, Prarthana Saikia and Ankita Sharma delve into the nuances of diversity, providing valuable insights into the correlation of prior experience with acceptance of diversity among the students of IIT Jodhpur. Satyaveer et al. discuss a refreshable braille display to meet the needs of the visually impaired aging population. As a preview into the ecosystem of high-performance computing (HPC) clusters, Ashish Kumar Rai et al. present an interesting overview of HPC basics and applications.

This issue’s Research Snippets showcase a range of diverse inquiries, from high-performance computing to early sepsis detection, reflecting IIT Jodhpur’s commitment to impactful research in smart healthcare, computing, and environmental sustainability. Antony Vincy et al. present a rapid and ultrasensitive sensor for bacterial and biofilm detection, while Mitali Praveen Kumar Saxena and G. Venkat Ram Reddy explore electrodermal activity (EDA) at the intersection of emotions and performance. Gauri Avasthi et al. discuss AI-assisted early detection of sepsis to prevent escalation of this life-threatening condition. Prachi Soni and Ajay Agarwal present a non-invasive health screening modality using sweat analysis. Venturing into the Thar desert, Rahul Kumar et al. reveal the potential of camel milk-derived carbon dots for environmental and healthcare applications. Vijesh Prajapat and Trishikhi Raychoudhury provide insights into regional groundwater quality and the application of metal-based nanoparticles for fluoride removal.

We invite you to explore these pages, drawing inspiration from the stories, discoveries, and reflections within. Released ahead of the 2024 Industry Day, may this edition resonate with the collaborative ethos of fostering partnerships that propel us towards shared success. We extend our sincere appreciation to the authors and scholars for their invaluable contributions, each article serving as a bridge between academic inquiry and real-world applications.

Dr. Rajlaxmi Chouhan

Associate Professor

Department of Electrical Engineering

rajlaxmichouhan@iitj.ac.in

Director`s Column

Prof. S. Chaudhury

Artificial Consciousness and Wisdom

Prof. Santanu Chaudhury

Artificial  consciousness  (AC)  and  artificial wisdom  (AW) are some of the most fascinating and complex topics in AI research and philosophy. While significant progress has been made in AI, achieving true artificial consciousness and wisdom remain elusive goals.

Defining Consciousness and Wisdom

Consciousness is everything we experience. It is the music stuck in my head, the smell of a flower lingering in my memory, the throbbing pain of a toothache, the fierce love for the child and the bitter knowledge that eventually all feelings will end. The origin and nature of these experiences, have been a mystery from the earliest days of antiquity right up to the present. Without the existence of consciousness, universe of the matter would have been void close to illusion. In the composition of Tagore:

With the colour of my own perception

The emerald became green, the ruby became red.

I opened my eyes at the sky, And light was there

In the east, in the west.

I looked at the rose and said, ‘Beautiful!’

Beautiful it became.

[translation by Dipali Chakraborty]

Some key aspects of consciousness often discussed include self-awareness, subjective experience (qualia), and  the ability to feel emotions.

Philosophers, starting from Socrates, have engaged with questions about (i) what is the central feature of being human and (ii) recognition of a particular form of ignorance that is also a form of wisdom. Socrates sought those who were reputedly wise and asked them about their wisdom. He interviewed politicians, poets, and craftsmen. After examining them, Socrates reached the conclusion that no one knows anything worthwhile, but he thinks he knows something when he does not. About himself he said, “ I do not know, neither do I think I know. I am likely to be wiser to this small extent, that I do not think I know what I do not know.” This form of ignorance turned out to be a form of wisdom – Socratic Wisdom. Socratic wisdom, or Socratic ignorance, brings an increased openness and humility with respect to how the most important human questions should be answered. Cultivating Socratic ignorance is particularly important when globalization is  causing  diverse  cultures to clash and where technology is redefining, at a very fast pace, what it means to flourish as a human. [T. W. Kim and S. Mejia, "From Artificial Intelligence to Artificial Wisdom: What Socrates Teaches Us," in Computer, vol. 52, no. 10, pp. 70-74, Oct. 2019, doi: 10.1109/MC.2019.2929723.]

Socratic wisdom philosophically represents the core of human wisdom. It means being open, accommodative and understanding, with the intent of well-being for all going beyond oneself. More formally, meaning of wisdom requires two different understandings of wisdom. (a) As action or behaviour, wisdom refers to well-motivated actors achieving an altruistic outcome by creatively and successfully solving problems. (b) As a psychological trait, wisdom refers to a global psychological quality that engages intellectual ability, prior knowledge and experience in a way that integrates virtue and wit, and is acquired through life experience and continued practice. [Zhang, K., Shi, J., Wang, F. et al. Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns. Curr Psychol 42, 15030–15051 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12144-022-02816-6]

Artificial Consciousness and Artificial Wisdom

Artificial consciousness refers to the idea of creating machines or AI systems that possess self-awareness, subjective experiences, emotions, and the ability to perceive and understand the world around them. While there is ongoing research in this area, the concept of artificial consciousness remains highly speculative and controversial. One of the main challenges in developing artificial consciousness is defining what it means for a machine to be conscious and determining how to measure or test for this phenomenon. For example, imagine a future where a robot is capable of reflecting on its own thoughts and feelings, exhibiting empathy, and demonstrating a sense of self- awareness. This level of artificial consciousness could have profound implications for the relationship between humans and machines, as well as for the ethical considerations surrounding AI development.

Artificial wisdom, on the other hand, focuses on imbuing AI systems with the ability to make decisions and solve complex problems in a way that is not just based on data or algorithms, but also  incorporates human-like reasoning,  judgment, and ethics. It involves going beyond mere data analytics and predictive  modelling.  It would  enable AI  systems to provide insightful and contextually appropriate solutions. For instance, a healthcare AI system that not only diagnoses illnesses based on symptoms but also considers a patient's personal preferences, medical history, and emotional well- being to recommend the most suitable treatment options would be an example of artificial wisdom in action. This kind of AI would not only be intelligent but also empathetic and wise in its decision-making processes.

Some Approaches towards AC and AW

Currently, with deep learning and generative AI, there has been tremendous progress in AI systems. Autonomous systems are increasingly becoming part of both the cyber and physical infrastructures that sustain our daily lives. Immersing these technologies into our technical and social infrastructures has profound implications and hence requires instilling confidence in their behaviour to avoid potential   harm.   Contextualization of   the autonomous behaviour with reference to the process of ethical decision- making is critical for adoption of AI in social life.

The field of machine ethics has generated methods, tools, and strategies for engineering artificial systems that can exhibit the characteristics of moral behaviour. Machine ethics has emerged as a field that explores the nature, issues, and computational approaches to ascribing ethical values to agents. The most commonly used AI methods in computational ethics are planning and reasoning with deontic logic. The role of theory of planned behavior and reasoned action in predicting ethical intentions towards others was demonstrated in experiments with human subjects. Besides planning and goal-directed behavior, deductive logic has been proposed to infer judgments and their ethical implications. Analogy-based reasoning has also emerged as an effective method that has been successful in developing prototypes that can address practical problems. For example, computational methods have been developed in which decisions are made by comparing the given problem to paradigmatic, real, or hypothetical cases. Moving towards artificial general intelligence (AGI), we need to have systems with deeper sense of self-awareness and understanding of the world. It requires development of approaches based upon better understanding and knowledge of human brain.

The nature and mechanism of conscious processing is arguably one of the most intriguing questions in 21st-century neuroscience. Researchers have distinguished “phenomenal consciousness” versus “access consciousness”. Phenomenal consciousness, by definition, involves a hypothetical and idealized situation of pure  subjective  experience  (also called “qualia”) without further associated information processing (and, therefore, no need for verbal report). Access consciousness refers to the fact that conscious information, unlike unconscious information, is accessible to numerous cognitive processors, such as those mediating working memory, verbal report, or motor behaviour. About 20 years ago, a simple and neurobiologically informed theoretical framework for conscious processing, termed the “global neuronal workspace (GNW) hypothesis” was proposed. Global neuronal workspace (GNW) hypothesis attempts to account for the main scientific observations regarding the elementary mechanisms of conscious processing in the human brain. The GNW hypothesis proposes that, in the conscious state, a non-linear network ignition associated with recurrent processing amplifies and sustains a neural representation, allowing the corresponding information to be globally accessed by local processors. ANN models based upon this theory have been experimented with to simulate artificial  consciousness.

Embodied Cognition is a research  area  that  emphasizes the formative role of the in the development of cognitive processes. It is hypothesized that cognitive  processes emerge from   real-time,   goal-directed  interactions between organisms and their environment; the nature of these interactions influences the formation and further specifies the nature of the developing cognitive capacities. The very structure of reason itself comes from the details of our embodiment. Thus, to understand reason we must understand the details of our visual system, our motor system, and the general mechanism of neural binding. Replication of these mechanisms in artificial systems can give rise to artificial consciousness.

This concept, in various forms, is often applied in the field of artificial intelligence and robotics, where  researchers aim to create intelligent systems that are not solely reliant on abstract algorithms or computer programs, but also interact with the world through sensory inputs and physical actions, much  like  humans  do.  For  example,  consider a robot designed to navigate and interact in a cluttered environment. By equipping the robot with sensors to detect obstacles and actuators to move and  manipulate  objects, the robot can use its physical embodiment to perceive and respond to the environment in real-time, leading to more adaptive  and  intelligent  behaviour.  In  essence,  artificial embodied cognition seeks to bridge the gap between the abstract nature of computational intelligence and the grounded, sensorimotor experiences that shape human cognition. By integrating physical embodiment into artificial systems, we can create more robust and versatile machines that can learn and adapt in complex, dynamic environments. Imagine a future where a robot is capable of reflecting on its own thoughts and feelings, exhibiting empathy, and demonstrating a sense of self-awareness. This level of artificial consciousness could have profound implications for the relationship between humans and machines, as well as for the ethical considerations surrounding AI development.

Conclusions

Whether AC and AW are achievable remains a topic of intense debate among philosophers, scientists, and AI researchers. Some believe that it is theoretically possible to create conscious and wise machines, while others argue that these qualities are inherently human and cannot be replicated. The pursuit of AC and AW raises profound questions about the nature of consciousness, intelligence, and humanity itself. While the future remains uncertain, research in this area is likely to lead to significant advancements in AI and our understanding of the human brain and mind.

Dedication of the Permanent Campus of IIT Jodhpur to the Nation

Dedication of the Permanent Campus of IIT Jodhpur to the Nation

The Hon’ble Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi dedicated the Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur campus to the nation on 5th October 2023. IIT Jodhpur is located at the gateway to the Thar Desert, with its rich tradition of art and culture, and is one of the fastest growing  technological institutes in the country with a vision of a future-driven Institute for nurturing excellence of thought and imparting knowledge by using transformational technologies with a multidisciplinary approach for responding to societal challenges and  aspirations. This will contribute to India's remarkable progress.

Honourable Prime Minister lauded the collaboration between IIT Jodhpur and AIIMS Jodhpur, Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi said, “IIT  Jodhpur and AIIMS Jodhpur have collaboratively exploring new possibilities in the feld of medical technology. Tis will also promote medical  tourism. AIIMS Jodhpur and IIT Jodhpur are becoming premier institutions not only in Rajasthan but in the entire country."

On this occasion, Prof. Santanu Chaudhury, Director, IIT Jodhpur, said, "Te Honourable PM acknowledged and appreciated IIT Jodhpur's  unwavering commitment to technological development, cutting-edge research, and the high-quality education delivered to our students. Te  Prime Minister has specifcally acknowledged our endeavours in the feld of medical technology, the collaborative eforts between IIT Jodhpur and AIIMS Jodhpur in developing innovative devices aimed at providing vital support to patients confronting diverse medical  challenges. Tis recognition serves as a tremendous source of inspiration, reinforcing our dedication to working tirelessly for the advancement of technology. He also shed light on our rich cultural heritage, our vibrant environment, and the contributions that IIT Jodhpur is making in these domains. Tese words of encouragement further enhance our commitment and promise to deliver excellence to our nation."

The Institute is working towards achieving its vision by providing a holistic education through a well-designed curriculum that includes  elements like fexibility, innovation, social engagement, creative problem-solving, entrepreneurship, fairness, and a multidisciplinary approach, taking the resolutions of Amrit Kaal forward with reforms like the new National Education Policy

The Prime Minister highlighted the unique projects undertaken by IIT Jodhpur. Some recent noteworthy initiatives of IIT Jodhpur are as follow:

• The institute ofers unique academic and research programs across multiple disciplines, including collaboration with AIIMS Jodhpur for transdisciplinary innovation-oriented programs in Medical Technologies.
• The Institute has established the School of Liberal Arts, ofering programs in Computational Social Science and Digital Humanities.
• The Centre of Excellence on Arts and Digital Immersion (ADI) ofers a unique M.S. by Research Program.
• IIT Jodhpur has the Centre for Education and Technology for Education (CETE) to conduct a unique Integrated Teacher Education Program aims at strengthening the Teaching-Learning process at all levels starting from school education.
• The Institute established a transdisciplinary Centre of Excellence in Integrative Precision Health and established an Ayurtech Center of Excellence in collaboration with Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Rajasthan Ayurved University.
• The Institute emphasizes science-based technology education and focuses on research and innovation aligned with national missions like Atmanirbhar Bharat, Make in India, and more, through various initiatives and partnerships.

Also, IIT Jodhpur collaborates with various stakeholders for societal and environmental cause using a transdisciplinary approach, contributing to national missions like Green Hydrogen Mission, Atmanirbhar Bharat, Make in India, Unnat Bharat Abhiyan, Ek Bharat  Shreshtha Bharat, Ishan Vikas, Vigyan Jyoti, by focusing on research and innovation towards developing indigenous technologies aligned  with these National missions.

Apart from this, several campus sustainability initiatives taken by the Institute include smart graded water supply grid, innovative water  irrigation system, thatched pathway roofing, soil restoration, waste segregation, wetland restoration and design, digital archiving of flora  and fauna, carbon capture from fue gas, natural vegetation spatial analysis, khamba composters, g-filters, etc. 

IIT Jodhpur takes pride in being dedicated to the nation, which will play a vital role in creating India’s remarkable progress. The Institute  will continue to expand its horizons and embrace transdisciplinary approaches to be at the forefront of India's journey toward  progress, and shape its future in significant ways

9th Convocation of IIT Jodhpur

Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur celebrated its 9th Convocation on 21st November 2023 and awarded 800 Degrees & 20 Diploma/Certificate awards to the class of 2023 in the presence of faculty, staff, students, parents, and eminent personalities. Dr. K. Radhakrishnan, Former Chairman, Space Commission and ISRO and Former Secretary, Dept. of Space, GoI graced the event as the Chief Guest. The esteemed guests were Dr. Vijay Chandru, INAE Distinguished Technologist, IISc and CoFounder, Strand Life Sciences and Prof. Indranil Manna, Vice-Chancellor, BIT, Mesra.

Three Honoris Causa degrees were conferred during this momentous occasion, to Prof. Rohini Godbole, Prof. Paras N. Prasad, and Mr. Vinod Gupta, for their noteworthy contributions to the fields of science and technology, and for the cause of philanthropy.

Key Highlights

• 316 qualified students in the B.Tech. (CSE), B.Tech. (ME), B.Tech. (EE), and B.Tech. (BB)degrees; Out of these,17 B.Tech. students have also met the requirements for the award of Minor/ Specialization certificates in Entrepreneurship, Management, Visual Computing, Artificial Intelligence, and Robotics 

• 92 students qualified in the M.Sc.(CY), M.Sc.(DH), M.Sc.(MA) and M.Sc.(PH) degree

• 04 students qualified in the M.Sc.-M.Tech. Dual Degree

• 283 students qualified in the M.Tech.(BB), M.Tech.(CH), M.Tech.(AI), M.Tech.(CS), M.Tech.(CI-ENV), M.Tech.(CI-EN), M.Tech.(CPS), M.Tech.(SIoT), M.Tech.(DCS), M.Tech.(AMD), M.Tech.(TFE) and M.Tech.(MT) Degrees

• 77 students qualified in the MBA and MBA-Technology Degrees

• 06 students qualified in the Master’s in Medical Technology Programmes

• 22 students qualified in the Ph.D. Degree.

In addition, 20 students qualified for getting the award for the PG Diploma/Certificate.

Reading & writing needs of blinds: Concern of Ageing population

Satyaveer, Saakshi Dhanekar, Abhinav Dixit, Kamaljit Rangra

There are 39 million people believed to be blind globally in 2020 and the number is estimated to increase to 115 million in 2050 [1]. World health Organization (WHO) defines blindness as presenting visual acuity less than 3/60 (20/400) or limitation of field of vision to be less than 10 degrees from centre of fixation or inability to count fingers at a distance of 3 meters or 10 feet in better eye with available correction. 

India has an estimated population of 4.95 million blind persons including 0.24 million children [2]. As per National Blindness and Visual Impairment Survey 2015-19, the estimated prevalence of blindness was 1.99%, in the age group > 50 years and 0.36% in overall population. Maximum prevalence was seen in 80+ age group (11.6%), followed by 70-79 (4.1%), 60-69 (1.6%) age groups [3].

It amounts to a net loss of INR 845 billion ($ 38.4 million) in GNI (Gross national income) with a per capita loss of INR 170,624 ($7,756). The cumulative loss of GNI due to blindness has increased almost by three times in the past two decades. The potential loss of productivity due to vision impairment is estimated at INR 646 billion ($ 29.4 billion) [2].

Being most diabatic nation in the world and with increased life expectancy, the aged population may suffer from diabetic retinopathy, further increasing the blindness.  This necessitates the interventions to up-grade the current braille technology interface for enabling the persons to read, write and communicate with smart screens and computer systems. 

Braille is based on a tactile code, where characters are formed by a combination of six raised dots arranged in a 3×2 matrix, called the braille cell, having 64 possible combinations for alphabets and can extended to an 8 – dot code, a 4×2 matrix, particularly for use with braille embossers and refreshable braille displays. All 256 (28) possible combinations of 8 dots are encoded by the Unicode standard. The approach interfaces  Braille – a  tactile writing system used by visually impaired people either on embossed paper or by using refreshable braille displays to computers. A new Braille alphabet system ‘ELIA’ has also been developed by using circle, square, dot and house that is easy for any adult who may have lost his vision later in life. It is also easier to learn for the parents to help the child in learning.

The 26 braille letters                                             The ELIA Alphabets

Braille is written with hand by using a slate and stylus. Slate can be made of plastic, wood or metal with base having groves in it and upper lid to guide the stylus for proper placement in 2 X 6 braille matrix to press on a paper.  The embossed braille letters can be felt on opposite side of paper. Braille is written as mirror image that is from right to left similar to Arabic languages but read from left to right as in Hindi or English.  This leads to slow writing and low motivation for learning. 

Braille can be written with a braille typewriter (Perkins Brailler and Jot-A-Dot) equated to a typewriter using a combination of six keys and the space bar to form letters, contractions, or symbols used in Braille. Electronic Braille notetaker is small, portable devices for storing information with the use of braille or typewriter keyboards. Information can be accessed through a built-in speech synthesizer with audio feedback for letters/words as typed. With use of Touch Braille, thumb keys for navigation, edit, save, and transfer of electronic documents via USB, Bluetooth or wireless connection can be done.  Braille may also be produced with a braille embosser (printer) – an impact printer using braille translation software for a digital text.

 Braille Printer                                                Braille Slate                                       Braille Typewriter  

 Braille Typewriter                                                                                    Braille Display

For writing and reading the braille an electro-mechanical device, refreshable braille display is used for displaying braille characters, using round-tipped pins raised through holes in a flat surface. The base integrates a braille input keyboard having two sets of four keys on each side, while output is a refreshable braille display having a row of electro-mechanical braille cells, each of which can raise or lower a combination of eight pins. Other variants use a conventional QWERTY keyboard for input and braille pins for output, as well as input-only and output-only devices.

For writing and reading the braille an electro-mechanical device, refreshable braille display is used for displaying braille characters, using round-tipped pins raised through holes in a flat surface. The base integrates a braille input keyboard having two sets of four keys on each side, while output is a refreshable braille display having a row of electro-mechanical braille cells, each of which can raise or lower a combination of eight pins. Other variants use a conventional QWERTY keyboard for input and braille pins for output, as well as input-only and output-only devices.

Technologies used in these refreshable braille displays can be summarized as follows:

(i)  Braille dots: raised dots made with use of plastic or metals for tactile sensation they should be  according to braille dot specifications provided  by National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped specifications, . Traditional embossed Braille dots of a base diameter of 1.45mm should have a nominal height of 0.48 mm with a dot to dot spacing of 2.33 mm [4]. 

(ii) Actuation of braille dotes: Various mechanisms including electromagnetic [5], pneumatic [6], actuators based on shape memory alloys [7], electrorheological fluids (ERF) [8], piezoelectric polymers [9], dielectric elastomers [10] have been examined with varying success.

(iii) Integrated Circuits (ICs) are developed to actuate the braille cells according to the inputs provided by software in response to text or by any signal through any sensor or mechanical force by user. 

(iv) Software: Almost all the text on the screen can be accessed with screen review software except , the graphical information as NVDA for Windows computers, VoiceOver for Mac. BRLTTY is a background process which provides access to the Linux/Unix console (when in text mode) for a blind person using a refreshable braille display. It drives the braille display, and provides complete screen review functionality.

Duxbury Braille Translator (DBT) is used by world's leading braille publishers. It supports over 180 languages in either uncontracted or contracted braille. Braille Blaster efficiently converts print into braille. Picture Braille is an easy solution for the production of tactile graphics on a braille embosser. Other than this API has made the easy accessibility of internet resources to use with other technologies. OCR is also a great technology to convert photo text into electronic text to use for the device development using camera to help blinds. 

Our work aims to develop a new refreshable braille display as an electronic slate which can be used for writing, reading any electronic text and photocopying for notes taking or writing a book or diary using a suitable actuation mechanism (yet to discover) and latch mechanism which can hold the braille dots in desired place.  Finding  suitable materials for braille dots that can withstand the printing pressure during photocopying is an essential part of this approach. Further – the goal is to make the device compatible with IoT technology for improving the user interface with smart homes and home or nearby area navigation assisted by camera, SONAR or GPS inputs. We propose an economical and upgradeable solution to facilitate learning, promoting independence and navigation of the existing knowledge resources among the visually impaired populace; adding to their self-esteem and harness the potential to have more Homers, Helen Kellers or Surdas in future.

Reference:

1. World report on vision. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
2. Mannava S, Borah RR, Shamanna BR. Current estimates of the economic burden of blindness and visual impairment in India: A cost of illness study. Indian J Ophthalmol 2022;70:2141-5.
3. National Blindness and Visual Impairment Survey 2015-2019 – A summay Report DGHS,  MHFW India
4. http://www.loc.gov/nls/specs/800.11October2014.final.pdf 
5. F.H.Yeh,S.H.Liang,MechanismdesignoftheflapperactuatorinChineseBraille display, Sens. Actuators A 135 (2) (2007) 680–689.
6. L. Yobas, D.M. Durand, G.G. Skebe, F.J. Lisy, M.A. Huff, A novel integrable microvalve for refreshable Braille display system, J. Microelectromech. Syst. 12 (3) (2003) 252–263.
7. P.M.Taylor,A.Moser,A.Creed,Asixty-fourelementtactiledisplayusingshape memory alloy wires, Displays 18 (3) (1998) 163–168.
8. P.M. Taylor, D.M. Pollet, A. Hosseini-Sianaki, C.J. Varley, Advances in an electrorheological fluid based tactile array, Displays 18 (3) (1998) 135–141.
9. S.M. Saad, F. Razaly, M.Z. Md Zain, M. Hussein, M.S. Yaacob, A.R. Musa, M.Y. Abdullah, Development of piezoelectric Braille cell control system using micro- controller unit (MCU), WSEAS Trans. Circ. Syst. 9 (6) (2010) 379–388.
10. H.R. Choi, D. Kim, N.H. Chuc, N.H.L. Vuonga, J. Koo, J. Nam, Y. Lee, Development of integrated tactile display devices, electroactive polymer actuators and devices (EAPAD), Proc. SPIE 7287 (2009) 7281C.

Incorporating diversity: Schema formed with prior experience irrespective of their personalities increases diversity-rel

Prarthana Saikia and Prof. Ankita Sharma

Abstract:

National institutes are hubs of diverse cultures. IIT Jodhpur is one such institute where we are exposed to people of diverse cultural backgrounds. Often, the prior perspective of people affects the tolerance and acceptance of diversity in present situations. The participants (N=100, 50=female, 50=male) responded to the measurements of openness to experience, diversity-related behaviour and job experience. Keeping openness of experience as a covariant, we conducted a one-way MANCOVA analysis of the data. We found while controlling openness to experience, having and not having prior job experience affects diversity-related behaviour among IITJ students. 

Keywords: Diversity, job experience, IIT Jodhpur students

Introduction:

India is a country with diverse cultural orientations. Cultural activities in institutes of national importance often reflect this cultural diversity. Indian Institutes of Technology Jodhpur (IITJ) is one such institute on which students from all over the country are enrolled for their higher studies. Students here not only have the opportunity to meet people from other reasons and exchange their cultural views and values but many diverse regional occasions are often observed with grand celebrations. The government also emphasises the inclusivity and preservation of different cultures in such places.

Universal diverse orientation (UDO) is being aware and accepting of both the similarities and differences among people [1]. Often, this awareness of similarities and differences is important as it helps to form alliances on the basis of similarities while valuing others for being different [2]. In places like IITs, there are ample opportunities for looking for such differences and similarities. However, exposure to such situations before joining an institute with a diverse population could help in adapting to their later behaviour, as schemas are already formed from similar situations. Since having job experience could be another such opportunity where an individual could meet and experience people from different cultural backgrounds, we looked for the difference between having job experience and its effect on UDO. Thus, we proposed our hypothesis: there is a difference in the universal diverse orientation between students having prior job experience and not having job experience.

Often, a person's personality is given overdue stress on how the person could adapt to a new environment. College students also had to adapt to various challenges once they joined or decided to reside in an academic institute. Openness to experience is one such personality trait. Openness to experience is a personality trait associated with the absorption of beauty in art and nature, inquisitive about various domains of knowledge, using imagination freely in everyday life, and taking an interest in unusual ideas or people [3]. Openness to experience has mixed results with job experience and the kind of job people with this personality trait adopt. Moreover, openness is positively correlated with certain kinds of jobs, such as in Social, Artistic, and Enterprising environments, but negatively correlated to Realistic environments [4]. Amir et al. (2015) found no difference in the openness to experience between employed and unemployed people. Uysal and Pohlmeier (2011) found female unemployed workers and workers with migration backgrounds have the advantage of finding new jobs with openness to experience. 

However, many studies have found openness to experience as a mediating variable for diversity-related behaviour. Sparkman et al. (2017) suggested that a multicultural environment could improve intercultural attitudes by personality shifts in openness to experience. Thompson, Thompson, Carlozzi, & Miville, (2002) particular facet of openness to experience, openness to aesthetics, is related to universal diversity orientation. Strauss and Connerley (2003) found a relationship between universal diversity orientation and openness to experience. Çivitci (2020) found openness to experience does have a moderating role between universal diversity orientation and other personality characteristics.

Since it is well established that openness to experience is related to universal diversity orientation, we had the question, could having job experience or not having job experience while controlling openness to experience affect diversity-related behaviour? Thus, we would like to modify our hypothesis to say there is a difference in the universal diverse orientation between students having prior job experience and those not having job experience while controlling openness to experience. Figure 1 represents independent and covariant affecting dependent variables.

Fig 1: Covariate model of work experience effecting diversity related behavior.

Methodology:

It is a random group design with one independent variable having two levels, a covariate, and three dependent variables. There were 100 postgraduate participants in the study. The survey was conducted through Google form as the study was conducted during the second wave of COVID-19. Figure 2 represents the flow of methodology used for this study.

Results and Discussions:

We randomly approached postgraduate males and females in the IIT Jodhpur campus during the second wave of COVID-19 and asked them to fill out the survey distributed through Google Forms. There were 50 female and 50 male participants. We approached only postgraduate students as many of them have some work experience in the real world compared to undergraduate students. We found 28 students with no work experience (12 female and 16 male) and 72 students with some kind of work experience (34 male and 38 female).

Table 1: correlation among dependent variables and covariate

**p<0.01, *p<0.05

We measured diversity of contact, relativistic appreciation, and comfort with differences for dependent variables. As can be seen from Table 1, the mean score for the diversity of contact was 29.61, and the standard deviation was 3.55. The mean score for relativistic appreciation was 24.92, and the standard deviation was 3.36. The mean score for the comfort with differences was 24.52, and the standard deviation was 4.26. The mean for covariate openness to experience was 37.61, and the standard deviation was 6.34.

Before using MANCOVA, we run through the assumptions for the present data. We correlate all the dependent variables and the covariate, and as can be seen from Figure 3, they correlate with a moderate range. For the normality test, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was run, and all the dependent variable was found to have significant results, whereas covariate had non-significate results. Thus, the assumption for normality for the dependent variables was not met. Additionally, the M-box test was found to be 12.25, which was non-significant at 0.069. Thus, we considered Wilks' Lambda, which was again non-significant with a p-value of 0.979. Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances for all the dependent variables was also found to be non-significant. Thus, homogeneity of variance and covariance is established. Then, we looked into the interaction of independent variable and covariate, which was again found to be non-significant. Thus, the homogeneity of the regression slope was met.

Once all the assumptions were tested, we moved on to the final one-way MANCOVA. As seen from Table 2, covariate openness to experience was significant with all the dependent variables. The independent variable of job experience was significant with diversity of contact and comfort with differences.

Table 2: one-way MANCOVA analysis with independent, dependent and covariate

**p<0.01, *p<0.05

Past studies have found openness to experience as a mediating variable that affects universal diversity orientation with other variables [5]. Some other studies also found universal diversity orientation correlates with openness to experience (Strauss & Connerley, 2003; Thompson et al., 2002). With the results from the current research, we can say that even after controlling the openness to experience, having or not having job experience could affect diversity-related behaviour in later stages. From the results, we could observe that there is a significant difference found with diversity of contact and comfort with others, but relative appreciation was not significant. Thus, our hypothesis there is a difference in the universal diverse orientation between students having prior job experience and those not having job experience while controlling openness to experience was partially accepted.

Table 3: Mean and standard deviation of significant variables with having or not having job experiences

Figures 4 (a) and (b) and Table 3 show that people with prior work experiences have shown more diversity-related behaviour. Thus, it can be implied that students with prior work experience are more interested in participating in diverse social and cultural activities and are more comfortable with individuals with diverse cultural backgrounds.

Conclusion: 

Often, government agencies emphasise respecting diversity and policies for inclusivity. However, only having policies is not enough for inclusive behaviour in people. As we have found, having job experience could have prior exposure to diverse cultures. This orientation to diverse cultures could help understand and accept cultural similarities and differences later in other social situations, like rejoining an academic institution. 

Implication and limitation:

It is always beneficial for the students to gain practical knowledge in any work field. Having work experience not only increases work knowledge in relevant fields but is also helpful in adapting to later situations in life. However, this study's results are limited to only IITJ students. Moreover, the data did not follow a normal distribution; thus, the results of this study are to be adopted with caution.

References:

Ecosystem of High-Performance Computing Cluster (Supercomputer)

Ashish Kumar Rai, Dheerendra Kumar Yadav, Anil Kumar, Atul Kumar Pal

Abstract

We often hear the word “Supercomputer”; our mind draws a picture of a computer that is a huge machine, which has exceptionally excellent processing power with thousands of CPU cores, Peta bytes of memory, and which can process even the most signifcant problem sets in seconds. It is not all wrong, but instead of a single computer, a supercomputer is a group or cluster of interconnected servers. The study of this article involves the proper understanding of the supercomputer, or we can say HPC (High Performance Computing) cluster along with the hardware, middleware, software, network, and applications involved in making the HPC cluster.

Introduction

In this growing technological world, we are heavily dependent on computers; in this dependency, HPC or supercomputers play a critical role. Even in our day-to-day lives, we directly or indirectly interact with supercomputers without our knowledge. If we consider the examples, we will understand the connection: Weather Forecasting: The weather forecast accuracy has improved over time, and this has happened because HPC systems are being used for running sophisticated weather and climate models for accurate weather forecasts.

• Entertainment and Media: Whether it be sports, movies, or video games, HPC powers the rendering of complex visual efects, making them more realistic and immersive. It also supports streaming services, improving video compression and content delivery.
• Transportation and Logistics: HPC is essential in optimizing transportation and logistics in this modern world, helping companies manage supply chains, route planning, an d vehicle optimization to improve efciency and reduce costs.

The above were a few examples that you may be experiencing in your life, unaware of the fact that HPC is behind all the above. Now, below are a few more examples that will make you understand the importance of the HPC in every feld:

• Drug Discovery and Healthcare: Pharmaceutical companies use HPC to accelerate drug discovery and development, allowing for the  dentifcation of potential drug candidates and simulating drug interactions within the human body. This helps in he creation of new medications and treatments for various diseases.
• Financial Modelling: In finance, HPC is essential for risk analysis, high-frequency trading, and complex financial modeling. It plays a vital role in understanding and managing financial markets.
• National Security and Defense: Governments and defense organizations use HPC for tasks like cryptography, nuclear simulations, and intelligence analysis. It plays a vital role in national security and defense strategies.
• Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: The training of deep learning models for AI applications, including natural language  rocessing, image recognition, and autonomous vehicles, often requires HPC resources for faster processing and training.

There could be many more examples of HPC or supercomputers helping humans and enabling endless possibilities. Now knowing the above facts let us move forward to understand the components, tools, and technology that are referred to as “Supercomputer” when 
combined.

The Basics

Moving ahead, let’s design a powerful server per the resources available in the current scenario. Whenever we talk about computers or  servers, we know that the CPU is the brain that does all the processing. When we talk about CPUs or processors, we all know that currently, in our market, two significant giants, “Intel” and “AMD,” are producing processors. Now, if we consider the most powerful server processor they are producing, the specifications are as follows:

Also, Nvidia is currently leading the market if we talk about the GPUs. If we consider its latest and the most powerful GPU, which can be installed on a server, the specifications are as follows:

We now try to configure a high-end server with, let’s say, an AMD processor and Nvidia H100 GPU, so our server can have a maximum of 4 processors and 4 GPU cards, as this is the maximum limit of processors. Pcie GPU on a single motherboard also, we will install 4 TB of RAM (memory). So, collectively, our server will have around 384 Cores, 4 TB RAM, and 320 GB of GPU memory with 204 Terafops Tensor cores. Now let’s consider that, as of date, this could be the most powerful server which can be configured. Now, can this server be labeled as a supercomputer, the answer will be “NO” as it has very limited resources as we think a supercomputer should possess. Now try combining 100 servers like this, and your total resource will be around 38400 CPU Cores, 400 TB RAM, and 32000 GB of GPU memory with 20400 Terafops Tensor cores. Now, this specification justifes the picture of a supercomputer. Still, how to achieve the combining of resources or interconnection of 100 servers, physically and logically we can interconnect them. Hence, they start working as one cluster of servers, and for the same, we need to understand the ecosystem that is required to do so.

 The Ecosystem

The ecosystem of High-Performance Computing (HPC) refers to the interconnected network of hardware, software, and tools that enable high-performance computing capabilities. It typically includes:

1. Hardware: HPC systems consist of clusters of hardware and specialized hardware like GPUs designed to process massive amounts of data and perform complex computations efciently.
2. Software: HPC software includes operating systems optimized for parallel computing, job schedulers to manage task distribution, libraries for parallel programming, and performance monitoring tools.
3. Programming Models: HPC uses parallel programming models like MPI (Message Passing Interface) and OpenMP (Open Multi-Processing) to distribute computations across multiple processors or cores.
4. Applications: Various scientific, engineering, and research applications use HPC to simulate and analyze complex phenomena such as weather modeling, molecular dynamics, computational fuid dynamics, and more.
5. Networking: High-speed interconnects and networking technologies play a crucial role in HPC systems, enabling eficient data transfer between nodes.
6. Storage: HPC environments require fast and large-scale storage systems to handle the vast amounts of data generated and processed during computations.
7. Middleware: Middleware facilitates communication between hardware, software, and applications, ensuring seamless integration within the HPC ecosystem.

These are the components that are required to interconnect the servers and their eficient use. Please consider the diagram below to understand the ecosystem:

Now in a cluster, we use a provisioning application to set it up so that symmetry is maintained throughout the cluster, and the same architecture is followed along with all the storage mounted on the same place in each server. Also, to create a Parallel File System, a  large-scale storage system, we use Input Output (I/O) servers to read/write data and its metadata parallelly at different locations, giving us the I/O speed required for high performance. At last, we use InfiniBand, which ofers 200 GBPS throughput to carry the data at  high speed along the cluster.

Now as a user we log in to the Head Node, these are the servers acting as a medium between the users and the cluster, and they contain the jobs scheduler and resource manager application. Users submit the jobs/programs in the head node specifying their required resources. Then the schedule and resource manager allocate them the resources and allot them the compute nodes needed to execute their jobs. Compute nodes are “n” numbers of interconnected servers in the cluster that run the user job/program.

To be more specifc, creating and managing a High- Performance Computing (HPC) environment involves using a variety of applications and tools to configure, monitor, and utilize the HPC infrastructure efectively. Here are some key applications and software commonly used in the HPC ecosystem:

1. Job Schedulers and Resource Managers:

• Slurm: A popular open-source workload manager and job scheduler widely used in HPC clusters and supercomputing centers.
• Torque/PBS: Another set of job scheduling and resource management systems for managing HPC workloads.

2. Cluster Management:

• Bright Cluster Manager: A comprehensive cluster management tool for provisioning, monitoring, and managing HPC clusters.
• OpenHPC: An open-source software stack for building and managing HPC clusters.

3. Parallel Programming Models:

• MPI (Message Passing Interface): A standard for writing parallel applications that can run on a distributed memory system for inter-process communication.
• OpenMP: A set of directives and libraries for shared-memory parallel programming, often used for multi-threaded applications.

4. Development Environments:

• Intel one API: A comprehensive development environment for creating high-performance applications on CPUs, GPUs, and FPGAs.
• NVIDIA CUDA Toolkit: A tool developers can use to make GPU-accelerated apps.

5. Performance Analysis and Debugging:

• TAU (Tuning and Analysis Utilities): It is a system for profiling and tracing HPC applications to help with performance analysis.
• GDB (GNU Debugger): A debugger for HPC systems lets you look at and fix code.

6. Scientific Computing Libraries:

• PETSc: It is a portable and expandable set of tools for scientific computing that can be used to resolve linear algebra and partial differential equations.
• NumPy and SciPy: These are scientific Python tools that are often used on HPC systems for data analysis and simulations.

7. File Systems:

• Lustre: It is a fast, parallel, distributed file syste that is often used in high-performance computing (HPC) settings.
• GPFS (IBM Spectrum Scale): A grouped file system made for fast access and expansion.

8. Visualization and Data Analysis:

• ParaView: It is an open-source program that is often used in science computing to analyze and display data.
• VisIt: A similar open-source tool called VisIt can be used to see and analyze simulated data.

9. Containerization and Orchestration:

• Docker: This is used to containerize apps and ensure they can be used repeatedly.
• Kubernetes: Orchestrates containers and manages tasks run in containers on HPC clusters.

10. Monitoring and Management:

• Ganglia: A distributed monitoring system can be scaled up or down for groups and grids.
• Nagios: It is a well-known open-source system for monitoring HPC systems and keeping track of their state.

System managers and researchers can set up, maintain, and improve HPC systems with these programs and applications.

Conclusion

With this, the idea of a supercomputer and the tools involved should have been clearer. We may have a picture of what precisely a supercomputer is, how the cluster is formed, and using what instruments we manage it.

References

[1] Sébastien Varrette; Pascal Bouvry; Hyacinthe Cartiaux; Fotis Georgatos, “Management of an academic HPC cluster: The UL experience”

[2] Wim Vanderbauwhede, Khaled Benkrid, “High-Performance Computing Using FPGAs"

Early Detection of Sepsis: Need of the hour

Gauri Awasthi, Ajay Agrawal, Arpan Pal, Neeraj Gupta, Sanjay Kimbahune

Keywords

Sepsis, Biomarkers, Biosensors, Artificial Intelligence, Digital health

Introduction 

According to the World Health Organization [1], Sepsis is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality, affecting all age groups of high-, middle- and low-income countries. Globally, it is estimated to affect around 49 million people and cause around 11 million deaths every year, thus accounting for nearly 20% of global deaths2. It is considered one of the major life-threatening conditions that occurs when the body's immune system succumbs to internal bacterial, parasitic, or viral infections, thus causing organs dysfunction and eventually death [2]. The Hospital-Acquired Infections (HAIs) such as Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia (VAP), Central Line Associated Blood Stream Infections (CLABSI), Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) and Surgical-Site Infections (SSIs) are the biggest contributors to the burden of sepsis especially in low-and middle-income countries owing to poor healthcare infrastructure, manpower shortage, lack of quality services and evidence-based practices, a fact corroborated by WHO and CDC [3]. Failure to diagnose sepsis early and well within time is another potential reason of high mortality especially in High Dependency Units (HDUs) and Intensive Care Units (ICUs). Unnecessary use of antimicrobial agents and administering antibiotics upfront for even subtle of symptoms and signs especially in a hospital setting is another red flag. This misuse of antimicrobial agents not only results in increased healthcare expenditure, prolonged hospital stays, secondary infections, alteration of gut microbiota, future risk of obesity, asthma but also has contributes to antimicrobial resistance (AMR) throughout the world [4]. Although, several diagnostic criteria, tools and methods are available to identify sepsis, the early detection methods or potential early biomarkers are still unavailable. The ability to detect sepsis in early stages is critical because it is usually reversible with supportive medical interventions whereas in later stages and as time progresses the risk of dying increases substantially [4]. Even Sepsis Alliance [5] promotes and propels the demand of introducing quicker, effective, faster, and robust sepsis diagnostic biomarkers in hospitals and health care centres, globally. Thus, there is an immediate and urgent need for early diagnosis biomarkers and timely treatments to improve the overall outcomes.

Currently, Sepsis is diagnosed through clinical evaluation, Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS) criteria, the Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score and the Quick SOFA (qSOFA) score, blood tests and several imaging methods[6,7]. Each method has its own advantages and limitations. While the classic, conventional culture identification method has a lengthy turnaround time and is a significant barrier to the timely delivery of accurate diagnosis & prognosis, the recommended biomarkers Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein along with Presepsin, Actin, Actin Scavenger Proteins (Gelsolin and Gc-globulin) and Orosomucoid are non-specific. Apart from serum and urinary biomarkers, recent advances have identified new classes of biomarkers for sepsis detection such as fluid phase pattern recognition molecules (PRMs), complement system, cytokines, chemokines, damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), non-coding RNAs, cell membrane receptors, cell proteins, metabolites, microRNAs, the human microbiome and the PCR based quick sepsis test [8,9,10,11].

 Therefore, in the absence of any predictive or gold standard biomarker for sepsis early detection [9], the authors propose the necessity and importance of developing early, non-invasive, and robust screening biomarkers for sepsis detection with the help of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology. The authors have taken initial steps and forayed in this direction by browsing and sieving the Electronic Health Records (EHR) of the patients available in the public health domain. The MIMIC-IV database was neatly combed for the EHR data, and few pathophysiological parameters were identified after the data mining that will be utilized for further analysis. A collaborative approach has been taken to gain access to real time data of the patient population followed by identification of potential biomarkers using Nano-biosensors and AI methodology. The idea is to design and optimize highly sensitive and specific Nano-biosensors that can detect the sepsis specific biomarkers. The biosensor designing is currently in progress, including the selection of the appropriate nanomaterials, sensing elements, and optimizing sensors performances. These biosensors along with the AI algorithms will process the sensor data and accurately predict the sepsis risk. Further course will include training of machine learning models on large datasets of patients to identify patterns and develop the predictive models. This would lead to a portable, point-of-care (POC) system that can be used in clinical settings to monitor patients for sepsis risk at an early stage. The testing, validation and clinical trials will be done to evaluate the accuracy and effectiveness of the sensors and early biomarkers. 

Today, we are witnessing the era of Digital Health and development of a reliable, cost-effective, and easy-to-use diagnostic tool using AI for Sepsis early detection is our sincere effort in this direction. Not only these early biomarkers will significantly reduce the healthcare costs and improve patient outcomes, but also result in optimal use of antimicrobial agents thus preventing global issue of antimicrobial resistance along with huge healthcare savings.

References:

1. World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sepsis
2. Rudd KE, Johnson SC, Agesa KM, Shackelford KA, Tsoi D, Kievlan DR, et al. Global, regional, and national sepsis incidence and mortality, 1990-2017: analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet (London, England). 2020;395(10219):200-11.
3. CDC, https://www.cdc.gov/hai/infectiontypes.html
4. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE); 2017 Sep 13. (NICE Guideline, No. 51.)
5. Sepsis Alliance; https://www.sepsis.org/power-the-amrevolution/
6. Kilinc Toker A, Kose S, Turken M. Comparison of SOFA Score, SIRS, qSOFA, and qSOFA + L Criteria in the Diagnosis and Prognosis of Sepsis. Eurasian J Med. 2021 Feb;53(1):40-47. 
7. Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, et al. The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016;315(8):801–810. 
8. Kustán P, Horváth-Szalai Z, Mühl D. Nonconventional Markers of Sepsis. EJIFCC. 2017 May 1;28(2):122-133. 
9. Kim MH, Choi JH. An Update on Sepsis Biomarkers. Infect Chemother. 2020 Mar;52(1):1-18.  
10. Barichello, T., Generoso, J.S., Singer, M. et al. Biomarkers for sepsis: more than just fever and leukocytosis—a narrative review. Crit Care 26, 14 (2022). 

Unveiling the electric language of humans using Electrodermal Activity (EDA)

Mitali Praveen Kumar Saxena, G. Venkat Ram Reddy

Electrodermal Activity (EDA) also known as Galvanic Skin Response (GSR), primarily a part of psychology, physiology, and neurology measures the electrical conductance of the skin affected by the sweat glands. EDA was first introduced in the late 19th century by Wilhelm Heinrich Erb, a German neurologist. It assesses the naturally occurring changes in the electrical properties of human skin. Human skin consists of electrical signals that are tiny and natural impulses that travel through nerves and cells that help control various physiological and cognitive functions. Along with other skin-related organs, the sweat glands engage in the homeostatic process of thermoregulation through a wide range of physiological mechanisms that affect components of the autonomic nervous system. Through measuring these electrical signals, one can analyze emotional arousal, mood, sensory perception, cognitive functions, etc. EDA is one of the ways to measure these electrical signals. As the EDA responses are closely interconnected with the activity of the Sympathetic Nervous System, the value is controlled by factors such as Physical Activity, Environmental temperature, State of mind, Medication, Age, etc. Hence, it becomes important to construct a baseline before measuring the EDA signals for an unbiased result. The baseline can be the rest period of about 3-5 minutes, a neutral environment, consistent body position and, EDA values during the baseline period. The factors affecting the EDA value can be triggered by various stimuli such as Emotional scenarios, cognitive problems, social interactions and public speaking, physical pain and stress activities, etc.   

The EDA signals can be measured in various ways such as electrodes, research-grade equipment, software, and wearable and portable devices. Our research makes use of a wearable device- a wristband (E4 Empatica) as shown in Figure 1. Along with EDA signals (Figure 2), this device also collects data for: 

• Blood Volume Pulse (BVP)- measures the changes in blood volume in the peripheral blood vessels.
• Accelerometers- measure changes in acceleration or movement.
• Heart Rate from Interbeat Interval- assess heart rate in beats per minute.
• Skin Temperature- to assess changes in skin conductance.

Figure 1- EDA measuring device (E4 Empatica wristband)

Source: https://www.empatica.com/research/e4/

Figure 2- EDA graph generated using wearable wristband (E4 Empatica)

The EDA value helps in assessing emotional responses to various stimuli, identifying phobias, emotional processing, lie detection, etc. Since skin conductance and heart rate metrics are most closely related to stress, EDA signals and emotional arousal become important components in the study of performance and goal-oriented behavior. Stress is one of the most important factors influencing performance in today’s world ultimately affecting positively or negatively the goal-oriented behavior of the individuals. According to Yerks Dodson Law, there exists a relationship between arousal and behavioral task performance and for an ideal performance, there needs to be an ideal amount of arousal. Too much or too little arousal can deviate the optimal performance. On one hand, stress and anxiety can result from high levels of arousal. On the other hand, too little arousal can lead to reduced focus and attention. Hence it becomes important to study emotional arousal for optimal performance. 

Studying the electrical impulses can be of importance in the fields of Psychology (anxiety, emotional regulation, decision making, etc.) and Healthcare, Artificial Intelligence, and Human-Computer Interface, Education, in order to assess how learning and academic performance are being impacted, therapies and counseling, workplace performance, Athletes' training and performance, and Entertainment in order to gauge emotional responses of the audience towards the media content and the list, continues.

Our research focuses on investigating the relationship between emotional arousal and performance from an organizational standpoint. This holds the potential to profoundly impact employees' well-being, productivity, and overall work environment. Emotions have a fundamental role in the workplace, impacting team dynamics, motivation, and decision-making. Organizations can gain a greater understanding of how stress, engagement, and emotional states affect job performance by exploring this connection. This study can help develop techniques for properly controlling and harnessing emotions, resulting in a happier and more effective workplace. These studies' insights might result in the creation of specialized interventions, training courses, and stress-reduction initiatives that would ultimately help both workers and the company as a whole. It is crucial to comprehend how emotional arousal affects performance within the framework of an organization in order to design work environments that maximize well-being and productivity.

References

About the authors

Mitali Praveen Kumar Saxena

PhD Student,

School of Management and Entrepreneurship

Dr. G. Venkat Ram Reddy 

Assistant Professor,

School of Management and Entrepreneurship

Sweat Analysis for Health Screening - a non-invasive way

Prachi Soni, Ajay Agarwal

Screening is a preventive strategy in the field of healthcare that entails the systematic evaluation of person’s health, who might not show signs of a specific ailment but are susceptible to the development of health-concerns. The main aim of health screening is to detect potential health issues in their early stages, enabling prompt intervention and the use of preventive measures. Non-invasive proactive health screening is an innovative strategy, in healthcare diagnostics, with a focus on patient well-being and safety using techniques that do not involve the tissue penetration or disturbance. In contrast, the invasive methods require painful procedures; non-invasive health screening make use of a range of sophisticated technologies and techniques to evaluate a person's health condition. 

The use of sweat samples for biomarker detection has gained significant attention to medical science and researchers, due to its ease of collection and potential to provide valuable insights into disease diagnosis and management. The sweat is a non-invasive sample, and it is likely to substitute blood analysis for screening applications, with obtaining valuable understanding of human physiology and health conditions. The fact that external fluid serves as the initial source of primary sweat within the secretory coil that is present in the eccrine sweat glands, it is reasonable to expect that the amount of solutes excreted through the sweat can serve as a substitute for blood or exhibits a direct correlation with blood solute concentrations[1]. In order to comprehend the potential usefulness of sweat which can be correlated with blood composition, it is imperative to possess a thorough awareness of the physiological processes that govern the sweat composition. The classification of sweat glands involves three primary types: eccrine, apocrine, and also apoeccrine [2]. The main focus of this study will be eccrine sweat glands due to their large numbers (2-4 million) and widespread distribution across the majority of the surface area of the body[3]. Additionally, these glands contribute for the greatest volume in the production of sweat. The eccrine sweat gland is composed of two primary functional elements, namely a secretory coil along with a duct, which are comprised of a basic tubular epithelium[3, 4]. The secretory coil consists of three distinct cell types, namely clear cells, myoepithelial cells as well as the dark cells. On stimuli, clear cells inside the secretory coil release primary sweat, which exhibits a similar isotonic composition with that of blood plasma[5-7]. 

This study encompasses of an understanding of the composition of primary sweat within the secretory coil, as well as its mechanisms of absorption and secretion in the sweat duct, which ultimately impact the final composition of sweat that is released from the skin surface. Eccrine sweat is composed of a wide variety of compounds present in different amounts. These molecules include micronutrients such as potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), iron (Fe2+), and vitamins. Additionally, metabolites such as glucose, ascorbic acid, lactate, uric acid, ammonia, bicarbonate, urea, amino acids, and ethanol are found in eccrine sweat, along with cytokines and cortisol. The detailed list of biomolecules present in eccrine sweat is given in Table 1[8]. However, the detection of metabolites such as glucose, ascorbic acid, uric acid, urea, etc., from sweat samples is challenging due to their low concentration levels and the potential for interference from other biomolecules present in the sweat. Non-invasive detection of such metabolites from sweat has the potential to revolutionize disease management and monitoring, as it eliminates the need for painful and invasive blood sampling. The glucose and other metabolites concentration in sweat is generally observed to be lower in comparison to its concentration levels in blood. The levels of these metabolites in sweat are subject to impact from a number of factors, involving inter-individual variability, the rate at which sweating occurs, and the metabolism of biomolecules in that region. The precise concentration can exhibit significant variation across individuals. Normally, sweat is having the glucose concentration ranging from 50µM to 300µM or approximately 1 mg/dL to 5 mg/dL, similarly other metabolites are also having the specific concentration of themselves in sweat which depends on individual’s body conditions, surroundings and food habits.

Biomolecules concentrations present in Eccrine sweat and their comparison with Blood concentrations.

In context with the wide clinical information present in sweat, development of sensors that utilize sweat as a medium are gaining traction as an intriguing option for non-invasive health monitoring, which can provide real-time information on physiologic vital signs and indicators. These sensors utilize the chemical components of sweat, which is a readily available physiological fluid, to offer significant insights into an individual's health conditions. Sweat sensors involves several types of sensing modalities, such as spectroscopic methods, colorimetric, as well as electrochemical techniques. In specific, Electrochemical sensors commonly use enzymatic or non-enzymatic processes for the purpose of detecting particular analytes present in sweat. The advancements made in the field of materials science along with nanotechnology has played a significant role in the improvement of sensing factors, resulting in improved reliability of non-invasive sweat-based devices. 

Schematic of the SERS and Electrochemical Sensing techniques

Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) as well as electrochemical-based sensors are two unique and reliable methodologies that are employed in the field of sweat based sensors. These techniques are complementary to each other and provide distinctive advantages in the detection of different analytes present in sweat. We have identified the signatures of different metabolites such as glucose, ascorbic acid, urea and uric acid in both artificially synthesized sweat and the real sweat collected after 1 hour of rigorous exercising[9].  These metabolites are detected at trace levels using the SERS technique, by specifically engineered hotspots of silver nanoparticles (AgNP) on the silicon wafer surface. 

There are diverse techniques for the real-time identification of sweat analytes; the detection of biomolecules in sweat at low concentrations, without labelling is still a challenge. We have successfully implemented SERS approach, that possesses the capability to detect individual molecules at trace levels. Biomolecules adsorbed onto the plasmonic surface of AgNP. The plasmonic metal nanoparticles, such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), or copper (Cu), materials with negative real permittivity are employed for the production of a SERS substrate for the purpose of facilitating the phenomenon of referred to as LSPR. LSPR phenomenon leads to the electromagnetic amplification of molecular species immobilized on the SERS substrate. 

Electrochemical sensors record the variations in voltage and current levels, which arise as an outcome of a chemical reactions occurring at the interface of an electrode. This reaction is commonly facilitated by enzymes or other electroactive substances such as nanomaterials and thin films. There are several techniques for the electrochemical detection which depend on the application of voltage/ current; specifying the electrochemical sensors as amperometric, potentiometric, or impedimetric sensors [10]. The predominant approach for sweat sensors involves the utilization of amperometric and potentiometric processing techniques due to their exceptional sensitivity and the ease with which tiny electronic circuits can be developed. The most important and the primary requirement for the electrochemical detection is the design and fabrication of the sensing electrode and the selection of the sensing material. The electrodes are fabricated using various techniques such as photolithography, screen printing, etc.  Electrochemical sensing is also being exploited for the flexible sweat sensing device, capable of continuous monitoring of sweat metabolites.

Both, SERS and electrochemical based sensors are likely to impact the advancements of early health screening/monitoring devices, which will be portable and cost effective. 

One of the applications of the sweat analysis device can be in the Ayurveda diagnosis and therapeutics. Sweating is an important treatment methodology called Virechana, an elimination of toxins from the body using sweating treatments via steam bath and herbal laxatives. The sweat analysis of the patient at various stages of the treatment will be crucial for the assessment of its effectiveness and completion of the treatment.  

Further, by the identification of the biomolecules present in the sweat and their correlation with the basic ayurvedic panchakarma processes, the understanding of molecules that governs the three Tridosha elements can be established. This may bridge the gap between the modern science and Ayurveda by giving technical evidence for the ayurvedic treatments.

References:

[1] G. W. Cage and R. L. Dobson, "Sodium secretion and reabsorption in the human eccrine sweat gland," The Journal of clinical investigation, vol. 44, pp. 1270-1276, 1965.

[2] K. Sato, "Stimulation of pentose cycle in the eccrine sweat gland by adrenergic drugs," American Journal of Physiology-Legacy Content, vol. 224, pp. 1149-1154, 1973.

[3] K. Sato, "The physiology pharmacology of the eccrine sweat gland," Biochemistry and Physiology of the Skin, pp. 596-641, 1983.

[4] P. M. Quinton, "Effects of some ion transport inhibitors on secretion and reabsorption in intact and perfused single human sweat glands," Pflügers Archiv, vol. 391, pp. 309-313, 1981.

[5] R. Adrian, E. Helmreich, H. Holzer, R. Jung, K. Kramer, O. Krayer, R. Linden, F. Lynen, P. Miescher, and J. Piiper, "The physiology, pharmacology, and biochemistry of the eccrine sweat gland," Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Volume 79, pp. 51-131, 1977.

[6] K. Sato and F. Sato, "Na+, K+, H+, Cl-, and Ca2+ concentrations in cystic fibrosis eccrine sweat in vivo and in vitro," The Journal of laboratory and clinical medicine, vol. 115, pp. 504-511, 1990.

[7] D. Costill, "Sweating: its composition and effects on body fluids," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 301, pp. 160-174, 1977.

[8] L. B. Baker and A. S. Wolfe, "Physiological mechanisms determining eccrine sweat composition," European journal of applied physiology, vol. 120, pp. 719-752, 2020.

[9] P. Soni, S. Singh, U. Singh, and A. Agarwal, "Molecular analysis of Sweat for Evidence based Ayurvedic Diagnosis," in 2023 IEEE Applied Sensing Conference (APSCON), 2023, pp. 1-3.

[10] A. V. Mohan, V. Rajendran, R. K. Mishra, and M. Jayaraman, "Recent advances and perspectives in sweat based wearable electrochemical sensors," TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, vol. 131, p. 116024, 2020.

Bioprospecting Natural Sources from Thar: Camel Milk Derived Carbon Dots for Environmental and Healthcare Applications

Rahul Kumar, Antony Vincy, Khushboo Rani, Neha Jain, Raviraj Vankayala

Harnessing natural sources and developing greener approaches for the synthesis of nanomaterials have become crucial for the production of biocompatible and non-toxic nanomaterials for biomedical applications.1,2 In this context, carbon dots (CDs) produced from natural precursors has gained significant attention for various applications. These precursors, including plant extracts and naturally available materials, offer a chemical-free and cost-effective route to synthesize CDs with diverse applications. Thar, is one of the most populated hot desert in the world, and is characterized by the high maximum temperature with large diurnal variations, scanty rainfall, extreme aridity, and intense UV radiations. These harsh environmental conditions could drive nearly all living forms to their physiological extremes and threaten their survival. Camel milk (CM) is one of the precious jewel of Thar, and has immense nutritional value. It has potential health benefits, including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-Parkinson's, and anti-hypertensive properties etc.3,4 One of the major limitation of CM is its poor shelf-life, which significantly hamper its utility. In this work, we have unveiled blue luminescent CDs synthesized from camel milk (CM) that have the potential to sense manganese (VII) ions, inhibit amyloid formation and anti-cancer activity. 

The synthesized CDs carries the native beneficial properties of CM, and can serve as an effective alternative to its direct usage with improved shelf-life. Additionally, the synthesized CM-CDs exhibited unique photoluminescence properties, making them valuable tools for a wide range of applications including sensing, cellular imaging, diagnostics, photocatalysis, and therapeutics.5–7 The CM-CDs exhibit an average hydrodynamic diameter (3-15 nm), strong photoluminescence in the blue region, good water dispersibility, and exceptional photostability with negligible toxicity. Firstly, the fluorescent property of CM-CDs was taken advantage of to detect heavy metal ions. Manganese (Mn) is an metal ion which is essential for metabolism, enzyme activity, antioxidant systems, brain function and in some physiological processes.8,9 However, excessive Mn intake can lead to severe health issues, including neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s.10,11 The CM-CDs rich in carboxyl and hydroxyl groups, provide binding sites for metal ions. As efficient fluorescent sensors, the CM-CDs demonstrate the ability to detect Mn(VII) ions in both deionized water and metal ion-polluted tap water. They boast a high quantum yield (QY) of approximately 24.6% and a remarkable low detection limit of 0.58 µM for Mn(VII) ions, without any incubation. Moreover, the CM-CDs offer a unique advantage: they enable the visual detection of Mn(VII) sensing under UV irradiation.

Further, beyond their remarkable sensing capabilities for Mn(VII) ions, they are able to inhibit the amyloid activity when tested in α-synuclein amyloids. No aggregation of amyloid fibrils were observed when incubated with CM-CDs, which enables them to serve as a safe intervention for neurovegetative treatments. Also, the CM-CDs when tested on cancer cells showed a significant concentration dependent cytotoxicity behavior, without affecting the normal cells. In general, CDs prepared using synthetic chemical sources pose harmful risks to the environment and can hinder their applications for clinical biomedicine. However, the current method involved the bioprospecting of natural source from Thar for the development of eco-friendly nanomaterials for diverse applications, including environmental monitoring and healthcare interventions. CDs promise advancements in both environmental and healthcare technologies, marking an exciting milestone in nanomaterial research.

Funding Support: We greatly acknowledge the funding support provided by the Jodhpur City Knowledge and Innovation Foundation, IIT Jodhpur under the Thar Designs project (JCKIF/Thar/Proj-01/2022).

References:

(1) Shabbir, H.; Wojtaszek, K.; Rutkowski, B.; Csapó, M. Molecules 2022, 27 (24). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27248728.

(2) Smrithi, S. P.; Kottam, N.; Muktha, H.; Mahule, A. M.; Chamarti, K.; Vismaya, V.; Sharath, R. Nanotechnology 2022, 33 (4). https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6528/ac30f1.

(3) Swelum, A. A.; El-Saadony, M. T.; Abdo, M.; Ombarak, R. A.; Abd El-Hack, M. E. Elsevier B.V. 2021, 3126-3136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.02.057.

(4) Kula, J. International Journal of Veterinary Science and Research 2016, 2 (1), 018–025. https://doi.org/10.17352/ijvsr.000009.

(5) Yoo, D.; Park, Y.; Cheon, B.; Park, M. H. Nanoscale Research Letters. 2019, 126-457. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-019-3088-6.

(6) Du, F.; Li, G.; Gong, X.; Zhonghui, G.; Shuang, S.; Xian, M.; Dong, C. Sens Actuators B Chem 2018, 277, 492–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2018.09.027.

(7) Li, M.; Chen, T.; Gooding, J. J.; Liu, J. ACS Sens 2019, 4 (7), 1732–1748. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.9b00514.

(8) Tchounwou, P. B.; Yedjou, C. G.; Patlolla, A. K.; Sutton, D. J. Journal of electrochemical society, 2012, 133–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-8340-4_6.

(9) Jomova, K.; Makova, M.; Alomar, S. Y.; Alwasel, S. H.; Nepovimova, E.; Kuca, K.; Rhodes, C. J.; Valko, M. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 2022, 54-698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2022.110173.

(10) Harischandra, D. S.; Ghaisas, S.; Zenitsky, G.; Jin, H.; Kanthasamy, A.; Anantharam, V.; Kanthasamy, A. G. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2019, 230-016. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.00654.

(11) Li, L.; Yang, X. The Essential Element Manganese, Oxidative Stress, and Metabolic Diseases: Links and Interactions. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2018, 1012-45. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7580707.

(12) Xu, B.; Huang, S.; Liu, Y.; Wan, C.; Gu, Y.; Wang, D.; Yu, H. Journal of Biological Chemistry 2022, 298 (1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101469.

(13) Yang, Y.; Shi, Y.; Schweighauser, M.; Zhang, X. Nature 2022, 610 (7933), 791–795. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05319-3.

(14) Serratos, I. N.; Hernández-Pérez, E.; Campos, C.; Aschner, M.; Santamaría, A. Molecular Neurobiology. 2022, 620–642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-021-02596-3.

(15) Liang, P.; Sun, Z.; Cao, J. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry, 2007, 28-65. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344465987.

An overview of regional groundwater quality and applications of metal-based nanoparticles for fluoride removal

Vijesh Prajapat and Trishikhi Raychoudhury

Fluoride contamination in groundwater is a well-known problem in many parts of the world. Groundwater in several districts within the state of Rajasthan contains a high amount of fluoride [1, 2]. Several studies investigated the fluoride contamination scenario in the state of Rajasthan. Applications of different metal-based materials for fluoride adsorption have also been explored in the past decade [3]. This work is mainly focused on (i) assessing the regional groundwater quality from published data and field surveys and (ii) evaluating the performance of a range of nanoparticle (NPs) based adsorbents for fluoride removal. As the first part of the study, water quality was assessed from the published data [1], and suitable sites for field sampling were selected. During the sample collection, the fluoride concentration was measured at 39 locations, and 24 samples were collected where the fluoride concentration exceeded the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L. The fluoride concentration of the samples was measured at sampling locations using a field ion selective (ISE) fluoride meter (HI 98191, HANNA). Water quality parameters such as TDS, alkalinity, and hardness were measured following the standards method (IS 10500). To access the fluoride removal, novel NPs such as cerium oxide (nCeO2), iron oxide (nFe2O3), magnesium oxide(nMgO), graphene, aluminum oxide (nAl2O3), cerium zirconium oxide (n(CeO2)·(ZrO2)), clay, lanthanum oxide (nLa2O3), zinc iron oxide (ZnFe2O4), aluminum titanate (nAl2TiO5), magnesium aluminate (nMgO·Al2O3), calcium carbonate (nCaCO3) and zinc oxide (nZnO) were used for fluoride removal. For the batch experiment, the fluoride concentration was kept 10 mg/L, where the 50 mg/L of NPs dose was used. Then, the suspension was taken in 50 ml centrifuge tubes, and it was mixed in a rotating mixer (VE5A000530, Abdos) at 70 rpm for 150 min. The amount of fluoride adsorbed per unit mass of the adsorbent (Qe, mg/g) is calculated following the equation: Qe=Co-CeVM . Here Co is the initial fluoride concentration (mg/L), Ce is the final fluoride concentration after sorption of fluoride by NPs (mg/L); V is the volume of the solution (ml), and M is the mass of the adsorbent (g).

The result from secondary data analysis [1] indicates that only 20% of the collected sample has TDS within the permissible limits of 500 mg/. In contrast, almost 25% of samples have TDS above the rejection limits of 2000 mg/L (Fig. 1). The result represented in Fig. 1 also indicates that the alkalinity and hardness of 25% of samples lie within the permissible limits of 200 mg/L. Though the fluoride concentrations of 30% of samples exist within a permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L, the maximum fluoride concentration was found to be as high as 29 mg/L. Furthermore, high concentrations of fluoride are also localized in the districts of Pali, Ajmer, Jalore, Jaipur, Nagour, and Sirohi in Rajasthan.

Fig. 1: A brief summary of water quality parameters in the state of Rajasthan, extracted and analyzed from published data [1]

Fig. 2: Concentration of (a) Fluoride, (b) TDS, (c) Hardness, and (d) alkalinity in the study area

Based on the published data, Ajmer and Pali districts were selected as the study area. Water quality parameters such as fluoride, TDS, turbidity, alkalinity, and hardness of the 24 samples were assessed following the protocol mentioned earlier. The spatial distribution of TDS, alkalinity, hardness, and fluoride are presented in Fig. 2. Analysis of water quality parameters indicates that more than 70% of the sampling locations have fluoride concentration existing permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L with a maximum value of 8.5 mg/L. The TDS of the region varies within a range of 434 - 6634 mg/L, where 90% of samples have TDS above the permissible limit of 500 mg/L. The mean value of hardness and alkalinity of the collected groundwater samples are found to be 689±736 mg/L, and 504±262 mg/L equivalent CaCO3, respectively. In the region, the hardness and alkalinity of more than 70% and 90% of the collected samples lie above the permissible limit of 200 mg/L, respectively. Overall, the groundwater quality of the region is poor. All the collected samples have fluoride contaminations above the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L. The water quality parameters such as TDS, hardness, and alkalinity of the majority of the samples (70-90%) exit the permissible limits, where their concentration in more than 35% of samples lies above the rejection limits.

Fig. 3 Fluoride removal capacity by (a) natural mineral-based adsorbent and (b) different NPs based nano-material

As detailed earlier, the sorption experiments are conducted with an adsorbent dose of 50 mg/L and a fluoride concentration  of 10 mg/L, where different NPs are used as the adsorbent. The result is presented in Fig. 3, which indicates that the sorption capacities of different NPs vary within a range of  6 – 17.5 mg/g under DI water conditions. Amongst the different NPs, nMgO, ZnFe2O4 and nAl2O3 showed better performance with a sorption capacity of more than 17 mg/g. Based on the performance in fluoride removal capacity under controlled conditions, the nanoparticle could be ranked as MgO>ZnFe2O4>Al2O3>(CeO2). (ZrO2)>MgO.Al2O3>Clay>CeO2>ZnO>Al2TiO5>Fe2O3>La2O3>AlCeO3. The removal efficiency of fluoride depends on the removal process by individual NPs and their characteristics. Sorption of MgO and Al2O3 is mainly attributed to  (i) electrostatic interaction, (ii) hydroxyl substitution, and (iii) chemical interaction and bolding of Al-F or Mg-F as suggested in the literature [3, 5]. This probably resulted in very high F sorption by those NPs. Fluoride removal by CeO2, on the other hand, is mainly governed by ion exchange [6]. Where the F removal by ZnO is mainly attributed to electrostatic attraction and physisorption as suggested elsewhere [7]. The sorption of metal-oxide such as La2O3 and Fe2O3 shows relatively lower F, and the predominant occurrence of chemisorption due to the formation La-F or Fe-F bonds is suggested [3, 7, 8]. Overall, the NPs show promising performance in fluoride removal, and their performance is comparable with that of literature studies. However, the extent of their performance varies widely, which depends on the fluoride removal mechanism by those NPs. The working of the NPs under natural groundwater conditions is, therefore, expected to be controlled by the fluoride removal process, which will be explored further in future studies.

Reference:

1. Central Ground Water Board Department of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation Ministry of Jal Shakti. (year 2020-21).
2. Amini, M., Mueller, K., Abbaspour, K.C., Rosenberg, T., Afyuni, M., Moller, K.N., Sarr, M., Johnson,  C.A., 2008. Statistical modeling of global geogenic fluoride contamination in groundwaters. Environmental Science & Technology 42, 3662-3668.
3. Gai, W. Z., & Deng, Z. Y. (2021). A comprehensive review of adsorbents for fluoride removal from water: Performance, water quality assessment and mechanism. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 7(8), 1362-1386.
4. Maliyekkal, S.M., Antony, A.K.R., Pradeep, T., 2010. High yield combustion synthesis of nanomagnesia and its application for fluoride removal. Science of the Total Environment 408, 2273-2282.
5. Dayananda, D., Sarva, V.R., Prasad, S.V., Arunachalam, J., Ghosh, N.N., 2014. Preparation of CaO loaded mesoporous Al2O3: Efficient adsorbent for fluoride removal from water. 
6. Inanya, M. and Raychoudhury, T., 2019  Application of activated carbon–metal composite for fluoride removal from contaminated groundwater in India. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 16, 7545-7554
7. Koilraj, P., Kannan, S., 2013. Aqueous fluoride removal using ZnCr layered double hydroxides and their polymeric composites: Batch and column studies. Chemical Engineering Journal
8. A. Jeyaseelan and N. Viswanathan, Design of amino-functionalized benzene-1, 4-dicarboxylic acid-fabricated lanthanum-based metal–organic frameworks for defluoridation of water, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 2020, 5328–5340.
9. Raychoudhury, T., Boindala P. S., Kalidindi, S., (2017). Performance evaluation of metal impregnated activated carbon composite for removal of fluoride under different solution chemistry. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 17 (5): 1377-1385

A Rapid and Ultrasensitive Prussian Blue Based Sensor for Bacterial & Biofilm Detection

Antony Vincy, Harshita Agarwal, Neha Jain, Raviraj Vankayala

Bacterial contamination is a ceaseless issue in daily life occurring in various sources. The contamination of bacteria slowly evolves into biofilm which are bound in an extracellular matrix making them difficult to detect. Biofilms are a serious threat especially in clinical equipment and implant which need complete sterility. High-end analytical techniques like polymerase chain response (PCR), ELISA, mass spectrometry, nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA), etc.  have been developed over the years to detect contamination but they necessitated longer process periods, high-end equipment, and skilled personnel. Eventually, most analytical principles were miniaturized on a solid substrate. However, such devices remained complex and are not affordable for everyday use. Despite of the developments, the detection of biofilms remains a challenge as their presence is masked by the extracellular matrix. In most of the clinical devices, the biofilms are dried, which will make even more difficult for the detection. Moreover, in comparison to immuno-based techniques, PCR- based detection assay, visual colour change as the cue of bacterial presence would make sensing easier given its straightforwardness. 

Developing colorimetric bacterial sensor has been of great interest throughout the years because of their easy visual confirmation. A system that is capable to detect both bacteria and biofilms in the laboratory setting are complex to use. Moreover, they compromise either in the detection time or sensitivity of detection. In this  research, we have developed and validated a paper-based colorimetric dipstick sensor based on the principle of ferricyanide-mediated bioreaction synthesis as an indicator of bacterial and biofilm contamination.

The fundamental operating principle of our sensor hinges entirely on the chemistry underpinning the ferricyanide-mediated bioreaction (FM-bioreaction). This widely employed phenomenon finds applications in diverse fields, including biochemical or chemical oxygen demand measurements, antioxidant activity detection, and catalysis. The exceptional solubility of ferricyanide in water, surpassing that of oxygen, positions it as an exceptional electron acceptor. Since microbial respiration releases an electron through the electron transport chain (ETC) process, the released electron by the bacteria reducereduces ferricyanide to ferrocyanide. Further, when Fe3+ ions are added, it reacts to form Prussian Blue (PB). Hence, in the presence of contamination, electrons are released which are accepted by ferricyanide and reduced to ferrocyanide which can for PB with Fe3+. Conversely, the absence of contamination results in the absence of electron release, restraining the reduction of ferricyanide and thwarting PB formation, thereby signifying a sterile environment. Leveraging the remarkable electron-accepting capacity of ferricyanide, the reaction transpires within minutes of sample exposure, boasting a sensitivity of 101 CFU/mL. In brief, our proposed design harnesses bacterial respiration as a cue for contamination detection, culminating in a reliable, swift, and exceedingly sensitive sensing modality.

The solid sensor fabrication was based on the utilization of the biodegradable sodium alginate. Alginate, a polyanionic heteropolymer derived from brown algae or certain bacterial genera, exhibits unique properties in aqueous solutions. When exposed to specific divalent or trivalent cations, it promptly undergoes cross-linking, resulting in the formation of ionotropic alginate hydrogels. It is essential to highlight that in the synthesis of Prussian Blue (PB), a key component in our sensor, FeCl3 serves as the source of Fe3+ ions. Considering this, there arises the prospect of cross-linking sodium alginate with FeCl3, facilitating the interaction of ferrocyanide to form PB. This strategic synthesis has led to the development of our sensor, housed in a paper-based solid strip with alginate as the foundational material. This innovative combination not only ensures the sensor's structural integrity but also enhances its efficacy in facilitating the interaction necessary for the detection of bacterial and biofilm contamination. This yielded us the sensor in a paper-based solid strip with alginate base. Upon validation, our  sensor showed sensitive colour change that can be observed even with bacterial concentration as low as 101 CFU/mL within minutes of dipping into the sample. The proportional correlation between the concentration of bacteria and the intensity of colour change was also monitored carefully defining the linearity of our sensor. 

The dipstick sensors can be easily used by common households for the real-time detection of bacterial contamination in various samples, including water, food and biological samples. 

While the proposed dipstick sensor lacks the capability to differentiate between bacterial species. Nevertheless, it still serves as a valuable tool in various point-of-care settings for preliminary confirmation. Designed for ease of use, these dipstick sensors are accessible to common households, enabling real-time detection of bacterial contamination in water and food samples. There is a potential avenue for these sensors to distinguish bacterial types by incorporating biomolecules that complement those of specific species, utilizing fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) technology. It is crucial to note that the sensor's effectiveness in this regard is contingent on maintaining a stable pH value for the biomolecules. However, the introduction of biomolecules to enhance specificity may compromise the stability of the dipstick sensor, potentially leading to increased costs and intricate fabrication processes.

References:

1. Zhai, J.; Yong, D.; Li, J.; Dong, S. A Novel Colorimetric Biosensor for Monitoring and Detecting Acute Toxicity in Water. Analyst 2013, 138 (2), 702–707.   doi:.org/10.1039/C2AN36160D

1. Vincy, A.; Gaikwad, Y.; Agarwal, H.; Jain, N.; Vankayala, R. A Label-Free and Ultrasensitive Prussian Blue Based Dipstick Sensor for Bacterial and Biofilm Detection. Langmuir 2023. (ASAP) doi :10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c01451